CLASSIFICATION OF ROSES

For proper understanding of the principles of culture it is necessary to know something about the different types and classes of rose. For convenience, they may be divided into two great groups—the bush roses and the climbing roses.

The large bush roses grown for mass effects are extremely hardy, floriferous, and usually free of disease. They should be used to a greater degree than at present. Although they fail to bloom except in the early summer, the ornamental seed pods, or "hips," are very attractive in the fall of the year. Because of their hardiness and profusion of bloom, the baby ramblers and the more floriferous hybrid teas, called floribundas, are perfectly satisfactory, particularly for low borders.

The hybrid perpetual and the hybrid teas form the largest group. They are extremely popular and should be grown only in special beds, not with other shrubby materials. The name hybrid perpetual is misleading, since this type blooms usually only once a season, although some varieties may produce a second crop in the fall. The hybrid teas are really constant bloomers if proper care is given them. Of the two, the former are more hardy and vigorous.

Climbing Roses. This group comprises forms of hybrid perpetuals and hybrid teas that have been hybridized with R. wichuraiana and R. multiflora. The rambler roses are hybrids of R. multiflora and are characterized by having their flowers in large clusters and blooming but once a season. Vigor of growth and bright green foliage, usually of nine leaflets, are peculiar to this type. Crimson Rambler, American Pillar, and Tausendschlin are good examples.

Because of susceptibility to mildew, the ramblers are being replaced by the climbing R. wichuraiana hybrids, which show fewer tendencies to disease and possess greater adaptability to locations. The best varieties belonging to this group are Dr. Van Fleet, Silver Moon, Doubloons, Excelsa, Paul's Scarlet Climber.

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R. centifolia (cabbage rose) is a native of Caucausus and Persia. It is characterized by large globular flowers with numerous petals which curve inward. The flowers are pink and fragrant, appearing in June or July. The leaflets are seven, large and wrinkled with deeply serrated margins. The plant itself is a straggling bush, heavily thorned.

R. damascena (damask rose) is a native of Syria, flowering in June and July and again in the fall. The flowers are borne in carymbose clusters of red, pink, and white. Leaflets are usually five. The plant is upright, growing.

The Floriculture In Pollination

Many of our present-day hybrid lilies are the result of chance cross-pollination by insects. To rely upon such a procedure is not satisfactory, since it is difficult to foretell what might arise from seed produced in this fashion. The better method is to go about the work of crossing systematically. It is not only a fascinating pastime but may also prove profitable if an outstanding product were secured.

Fundamentally, crossing, or hybridizing, consists of the transfer of viable or living pollen from one flower to the stigma of another. Fertilization takes place after the pollen grain germinates, sends a tube down through the style of the flower to the ovary below where the union takes place, and seed is developed. The preparation of the flowers, either pistillate or staminate, should be thorough. Plants selected for breeding should be vigorous. Consideration should be given to size, color, doubling, and leaf characters, particularly those of viviparous habit. Viviparous plants are those which develop new plants upon floating leaves during their period of growth.

The male, or pollen, parent should be covered during the bud stage to exclude insects and prevent them from depositing foreign pollen on the anthers. For this purpose a thin piece of cheesecloth or a translucent, waterproof bag may be fastened about the bud. The pollen may be collected during the second day after the flower opens, the outer whorl of stamens yielding their pollen first followed in succession by the other whorls. The female, or seed-bearing, parent should be emasculated in the bud stage. This means that all stamens and their superimposed anthers should be removed before the pollen ripens. The operation is performed by a pair of forceps reaching to the base of the stamen and plucking it out. Scissors may also be used.

The emasculation is necessary to prevent self-pollination and should be done even though the stigma, or the receptive female organ, matures before the pollen. Removal of the pollen from the previously prepared flower is accomplished by the use of a camel's-hair brush or by the removal of the anthers with forceps and dragging these into the nectar that collects in the concave stigma when it becomes receptive. The petals and the sepals should be cut off partially; the flower, covered with a bag or cheesecloth tied closely about the base and fastened to a rod support. Enough twine should be left with the support to allow the seed pods to drop into the water and ripen normally. To keep a definite check of the crosses, records should be placed upon labels attached to the stake. The work of hybridizing may be done all through the summer, depending upon the flowering period of the types in question. The seeds mature usually, when the seed pods should be collected, the covering removed, and the pods placed in water to allow total disintegration of the covering and thorough ripening of the seeds.

The Flower Plants In Floriculture

Tabulate or diagram the foregoing data in a floral plan. Note that in this plan in Fig. 5 the relation of point of attachment of sepals, petals, and stamens is indicated whether they be alternate with each other or opposite. This method should be used far more than it is. If done before attempting to use a key, there is less likelihood of making the floral parts fit the specifications of the key, and therefore a more accurate diagnosis is obtained.

The Inflorescence. Just as the individual flower has a definite structure and arrangement of parts, so a cluster of flowers has a pattern, or arrangement, on an axis. This schematic plan of flowers on the stem or axis is termed an inflorescence.

1. Solitary Flowers. Flowers may occur singly in either a terminal or an axillary position, in which cases they are said to be solitary. This is seen in the fruit plants of quince and peach, the former terminal and the latter mdllary. The flower may be borne at the terminus of a stalk arising at the ground in a number of herbaceous plants (as with bulbs and corms). The stalk bearing the flower in this case is termed a scape, although it is really a peduncle as with any solitary flower. Such a case is familiar in the tulip, crocus, and violet. Since the term inflorescence implies more than one flower in a cluster, this case may be considered apart from the other two categories.

2. The Racemose Inflorescence. This is the most common situation in flower clusters and consists of an axis of unlimited growth bearing the oldest flovTers at the base and the younger ones progressively upward to the tip. The arrangement is familiar in such plants as hollyhock, lily-of-the-valley, and snapdragon. There are various modifications of this racemose inflorescence, but the general scheme is the same. The more usual ones are as follows:

a. RACEME. The individual flowers of the main axis oi peduncle have little stems known as pedicels, and they are of equal length. Examples are lily-of-the-valley, snapdragon, gladiolus.

b. SPIKE. A spike is similar to the iaceme except that the flowers are sessile; i.e., the pedicel is absent, as in buddleia. Cominonly, the flowers are numerous, completely covering a portion of the peduncle as in plantain. In some cases they are in whorls with conspicuous intervals between the whorls as in salvia.

c. CATKIN OR AMENT. This is a spike or raceme with a slender rachis bearing many unisexual, apetalous flowers, which falls as a whole when mature. Examples are ornamental amaranthus, birch, willow, alder.

d. UMBEL. This is a short rachis bearing long-pedicellate flowers of about equal length, spreading umbrellalike as in Queen Anne's lace, ivy, cowslip, onion.

e. CORYMB. The main axis is elongated, and the pedicels are of unequal length. The lower ones are longest; and the upper, or central, ones are shortest, resulting in the flowers lying in a plane. As in all racemose types the lowest ones reach anthesis first, and the maturing of the flowers proceeds upward until the last one to open is at the apex or what appears to be the center. Candytuft is an example.

f. SPADIX. This is a spike with a fleshy axis (rachis). It is sometimes surrounded or overarched by a very large bract—the spathe—as in calla lily, Jack-in-the-pulpit, monstera.

g. HEAD OR CAPITULUM. Numerous small flowers without pedicels are crowded together on a very short rachis called a disk. Osage orange, sycamore, sweetgum, and members of the Compositae, including dandelion and chrysanthemum, are examples.

3. The Cymose Inflorescence. At the growing point a flower bud is produced so that no further elongation of the axis can occur. The other flower buds of the cluster are produced below this point and hence are progressively younger from the tip of the axis toward the base. This gives a situation called determinate growth. The solitary flower is, in a sense, cymose. This situation is seen in the begonia, kalanchoe, exacum, hydrangea, viburnum, carnation.

The differences in price between the materials should be given consideration when purchased—the superphosphates being much cheaper even when the nitrogen of bone is considered.

Ammonium phosphate is the most soluble form of phosphorus and, where both nitrogen and phosphorus are desired, makes the most satisfactory material of all the phosphates. Monocalcium phosphate . which contains  cent phosphoric acid and is being used in gravel culture solutions, is too expensive for average soil application. It is quite highly soluble in water.

Availability of Phosphorus. Fineness of grinding is important in such phosphorus fertilizers as bone to permit each individual particle being in contact on all sides with soil and later with root hairs Such fineness is not desirable in the soluble phosphates, even though they may change over to a somewhat insoluble form upon contact with soil moisture. This form becomes soluble through the action of various organic acids in the soil, so that at least a portion may be used by the plant.

Phosphorus is utilized by the bacteria and the fungi of the soil and may be tied up for a period but later is released for plant use. As in the case of nitrogen when straw mulch is applied, the loss is only temporary. The spread of roots through the soil causes phosphorus availability, as certain solvents are released by the roots in contact with particles of phosphorus. Hence it is very important that phosphorus in the form of bone or superphosphate be mixed thoroughly with the soil and particularly in the areas where roots abound. The solubility of ammonium phosphate will force its passage to a greater depth than other forms of phosphorus. The rate of phosphorus penetration through the soil is only aboutIA in. in depth per year; hence any surface applications are of little value. It should be mixed with soil whenever possible.

Granulated Phosphates. As pointed out previously, superphosphate should not be used in fine form, and this is also true of ammonium phosphate. Granular materials permit of less care in application. They have much less tendency to stick together. Likewise, the granules expose less surface to the surrounding soil, thereby reducing the amount of fixation (insolubility) of phosphoric acid by the soil.

Applications. Superphosphate  and bone meal may be used at the rate of preferably as mixtures in the soil. If applied to the top, they should be worked in. The beneficial effect from surface applications of bone meal is due to the nitrogen content which, however, is quickly dissipated. If an organic nitrogen fertilizer is desired, tankage is the preferable form Phosphorus deficiency is indicated by dwarfing of plants caused by a small root system. The color of the foliage is very dark purplish green at first with marginal yellowing developing later and followed by dropping of the leaves.

Potassium. Potassium tends to balance both nitrogen and phosphorus by encouraging longer root systems and delaying maturity. It is essential in starch formation and its translocation. It is needed in chlorophyll formation and is helpful in assimilation of carbon dioxide so that in the greenhouse in the winter when light intensity is low, additions of potassium tend to compensate for that lack. In general, potassium seems to add tone and vigor to plants and reduces susceptibility to disease. Dahlia and other root crops benefit by its presence, and the coloration of flowers is sometimes intensified through its application.

Many of our cultivated soils, particularly sands and peats, are lacking in sufficient quantities of potassium for the needs. Even in clay and silt soils continual use without the compensating additions of manures or leguminous cover crops will cause potash depletion, which will result in unsatisfactory growth.

Because potassium is held" by soil particles and thus is not readily leached, large qua ities would apparently be available to the plant. Yet act y a comparatively small percentage is available. As a con quence it has been found that to maintain a high level of this element, frequent applications are necessary.

It is interesting to note that a soil high in colloidal matter (fine particles of soil of gel-like nature to which the property of adsorption is attributed) may come to such a shortage of potassium necessary for its maintenance that when potash is added, little or no effect is produced because of competition between the soil colloidal matter and the plants. Thus, frequently a heavier application of potash may be required on clay soil than on sand, this in spite of the fact that clay soils are usually considered to have more potash than the sandy types. Considering all these matters, the use of potash cannot be overlooked. Likewise, it must be borne in mind that growers of by-gone days did not seem to need to apply potash—they were content with the use of manures and bone meal. And therein lay the story. (1) The soils themselves—more virgin than now—contained enough potash; (2) manure supplies potash in high amounts; and (3) the calcium in bone as well as its nitrogen had and have a capacity to liberate potassium. Thus, frequently, when we apply lime or nitrate of soda, we liberate potash; but a limit is eventually reached, and replacements must be made.

Magnesium is lacking in the soil, potassium magnesium sulphate may be substituted. Since the first two mentioned contain about other materials bearing potash may be used in proportion. As an example, hardwood ashes containing. Potassium deficiency is readily recognized by an initial mottling of the foliage, followed by marginal browning and dying of the lower leaves. This occurs because of the mobility of potassium and its translocation to the younger leaves when a deficiency occurs. Excess of potassium is evidenced by plants of dwarf nature with short internodes. Yellowing of the foliage begins at the bottom and progresses upward. The yellow leaves turn brown and finally shrivel. Extreme overdoses will cause a complete collapse of the plant in a short time.

The Pests And Diseases In Garden Leaves

Whatever you do, it is essential that you try as many methods as possible and do not give up in your attempts to keep this particularly unpleasant creature out of your garden, or at least keep its numbers at a low level. These seem to be one of the pests that occurs in plagues. They were a big problem in Victorian gardens, then vanished, to recur again recently. Probably not unconnected with the habits of the plant trade, as the adults cannot fly. What is eating these circular holes around the edges of the leaves on my plants? Several have been attacked, but the problem seems to be particularly bad on my wisteria and my roses.

The neat edges to the circular or elliptical holes is typical of damage by a leaf-cutting bee and makes it easy to distinguish this from the holes that other pests, such as caterpillars, slugs or vine weevils, might make in foliage It is the female bee who is responsible for removing the leaf sections and she does not in fact eat them, but uses them to construct little 'pods' into which she lays her eggs. I always think that these look rather like miniature cigars - they are made up of numerous leaf circles woven together. You may find them in the compost in old flowerpots or occasionally in rotten wood. A leaf-cutting bee will make lots of these structures and, when each one is finished, she fills it with a supply of pollen and nectar and then lays one egg in each, before closing it off with another circle of leaf.

You may have seen the bees around your garden and not recognized them for what they are, as they are very similar to honey bees, but have distinctly gingery-coloured hair beneath their abdomens - not the sort of thing you are going to notice easily! Although occasionally they can cause quite disfiguring damage, it is rarely that bad and is certainly of no significance as far as the plant's health is concerned, so I would not suggest that you do anything to attempt to control them. In any case, you should bear in mind that they are also useful pollinators.My mother has been looking after a colony of leaf-cutting bees for some years, because they make their 'tubes' down the insides of the plant pots in her greenhouse. I'm sure she wishes they would go away sometimes, but she cannot bring herself to get rid of them. They like the dry soil of pots holding cacti, succulents and dormant hippeastrum best.

It certainly sounds as if the larvae of the carrot fly have been responsible, as they carry out damage exactly as you described and attack all the plants you mentioned. An added problem is that, once the roots have been tunneled, they are very open to secondary infections, in particular both bacterial and fungal rots, which can mean that they will not store.

The Garden Pests And Diseases In Wallflowers

What is causing these tiny, near-circular holes on the leaves of my rocket and radish plants? Something similar seems to have attacked aubretia, alyssum, wallflowers and nasturtiums, but all is sure these tiny beetles are flea beetles, a species of Phyllotreta. They measure in length and are most commonly very shiny and black, but occasionally have a bright-yellow stripe; or they can be yellowy brown or metallic blue, depending on the species. These beetles eat the tiny rounded holes in the upper surface of the leaf, and you may have noticed that sometimes they don't actually eat right the way through the leaf, but leave a brownish-white spot of dry leaf tissue. On older plants these pests may have little effect or just check the growth slightly, but they can sometimes kill seedlings, if they do a lot of damage. There are lots of different types of flea beetle and the damage is most commonly seen on brassicas, including those you described, but also Swedes and turnips. There is another type of flea beetle that will also attack the foliage of potatoes and the Chilean potato vine. Flea beetles will feed between the middle of spring and the end of summer, and in bad years the injury they cause can set plants back quite a bit.

Control is difficult, but you should do everything you can to encourage seedlings to grow strongly, so that they can compensate for any damage that occurs. This includes keeping plants well watered and only sowing seeds at a time when you think germination and early growth will be rapid and vigorous. You could also consider using pesticides such as Derris, Politest and Sybol. I have heard people suggest that you can trap flea beetles by disturbing the foliage and at the same time holding a batten of wood covered in non-setting glue just above the leaves. The idea is that the beetles jump in the air and get stuck to the adhesive surface. An interesting idea, but I suspect that it is rather too time-consuming and a bit too unreliable for me but that's up to you.The damage is typical of that caused by capsid bugs or plant bugs. The common species of both are in length when fully grown and they feed by sucking the plant's sap. As they do this they produce a toxin that kills off the plant cells in the area penetrated by the insects' mouth parts. This causes the brown spots to develop and the leaves or shoot tips.

The Plants Pests And Diseases

That the gases seem to cause the mole to run away initially, but it survives and returns once the gas has dispersed. It has also been suggested that if you plant the caper spurge around the area, this acts as a mole deterrent — once again I'm afraid to say that the results I have seen have never really impressed me at all. The most effective method seems to be setting mole traps, and although you can purchase these from some garden centres or direct from the manufacturers, they are quite difficult to set effectively and if you do not do the job properly you could end up either making the mole suffer a lot or failing to catch it at all. You can also buy humane traps, which allow the mole to enter without being killed. You can then attempt to move it to another location and release it, but I am always rather concerned that in the process of doing this it is likely that the mole will die of fright anyway.

So the long and short of it is that there is no truly reliable method. Perhaps the one means of controlling them that most people find effective is to employ a mole catcher, but finding a mole catcher may be nearly as hard as controlling the mole you. Moles can be kept from uprooting plants with three giant pins made from old bicycle spokes or wire coathangers. These can be removed once the plant is well established. A row of seedlings can also be protected with the same pins. Beds, greenhouses and even lawns can be completely protected by embedding narrow-gauge wire chicken mesh horizontally in the soil.

There are lots of things you can try, but rather as with moles, the results can be variable. Some gardeners find that using humming or buzzing lines, which you can buy from garden centres, works well. These are attached between two posts or poles, are held tight and vibrate in the wind, producing a noise that is only just audible to the human ear, but which seems to deter birds quite effectively. You can make a similar device yourself using the insides of an audio cassette tape.Other deterrents, such as scarecrows or shapes cut to look like cats (with marbles used for eyes), tinfoil-pie cases dangling from strings, and so forth will potentially deter birds, but generally speaking the birds soon realize that they do not pose a real threat and return anyway. Your best bet is, therefore, to choose a wide range of devices and use them all in succession so that the birds don't get a chance to get too used.